HIV viral suppression and risk of viral rebound in patients on antiretroviral therapy: a two- year retrospective cohort study in Northern Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: The world is moving towards the third target of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS to ensure most people receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) are virologically suppressed. Little is known about viral suppression at an undetectable level and the risk of viral rebound phenomenon in sub-Saharan Africa which covers 67% of the global HIV burden.This study aimed to investigate the proportion of viral suppression at an undetectable level and the risk of viral rebound among people living with HIV receiving ART in northern Tanzania. METHODOLOGY: A hospital based-retrospective study recruited people living with HIV who were on ART for at least two years at Kibong'oto Infectious Disease Hospital and Mawenzi Regional Referral Hospital in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. Participants' two-year plasma HIV were captured at months 6, 12, and 24 of ART. Undetectable viral load was defined by plasma HIV of viral load (VL) less than 20copies/ml and viral rebound (VR) was considered to anyone having VL of more than 50 copies/ml after having history of undetectable level of the VL less than 20copies/ml. A multivariable log-binomial generalized linear model was used to determine factors for undetectable VL and viral VR. RESULTS: Among 416 PLHIV recruited, 226 (54.3%) were female. The mean (standard deviation) age was 43.7 (13.3) years. The overall proportion of undetectable VL was 68% (95% CI: 63.3-72.3) and 40.0% had viral rebound (95% CI: 34.7-45.6). Participants who had at least 3 clinic visits were 1.3 times more likely to have undetectable VL compared to those who had 1 to 2 clinic visits in a year (p = 0.029). Similarly, participants with many clinical visits ( > = 3 visits) per year were less likely to have VR compared to those with fewer visits ( = 2 visits) [adjusted relative risk (aRR) = 0.64; 95% CI: 0.44-0.93]. CONCLUSION: Participants who had fewer clinic visits per year(ART refills) were less likely to achieve viral suppression and more likely to experience viral rebound. Enhanced health education and close follow-up of PLHIV on antiretroviral therapy are crucial to reinforce adherence and maintain an undetectable viral load.

Facilitators and barriers to implementing chest radiography in tuberculosis systematic screening of clinically high-risk groups in Ethiopia: A qualitative study.

Background: Chest X-ray has been included in national tuberculosis screening algorithms as a sensitive tuberculosis screening tool among high-risk groups. However, the implementation was influenced by multiple factors. We aimed to explore facilitators and barriers to implementing chest X-ray in systematic tuberculosis screening of clinically high-risk groups in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Methods: We conducted face-to-face, in-depth interviews with purposively selected participants at tertiary-level hospitals and a tuberculosis program coordinator at the Ethiopian Ministry of Health, who coordinates chest X-ray-guided systematic tuberculosis screening. A framework analysis was conducted using the consolidated framework for implementation research. Results: We identified 11 constructs that influenced the implementation of the chest X-ray intervention. Facilitators included the relative sensitivity of chest X-ray over symptom-based screening, its potential integration into existing systems, technological advancements in the area, policies and laws supporting the screening intervention, and the quality of the evidence of the screening intervention. Barriers included implementation complexity, high costs of the intervention, knowledge gaps among healthcare providers, training gaps, low priority for chest X-ray screening at the healthcare facility level, and a lack of external support from the Ministry of Health and stakeholders. Conclusion: This study identified contextual factors that influence the implementation of chest X-ray guided systematic tuberculosis screening among clinically high-risk groups that healthcare facilities and health ministries may use for decision-making. Addressing the barriers identified by the study would help to improve the implementation of chest X-rays for improved tuberculosis case detection and prompt treatment in clinically high-risk groups.

Hepatitis B vaccine effectiveness among vaccinated children in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Globally, 257 million people have chronic hepatitis. Even though a safe and effective prophylactic vaccine against HBV infection has been available, it causes significant morbidity and mortality. HBV vaccines were designed to improve or modulate the host immune responses. The effectiveness of the vaccine is determined by measuring serum hepatitis B surface antibody (Anti-HBs) level. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of hepatitis B vaccine among vaccinated children. METHODS: Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines was applied for systematically searching of different databases. Only cross-section studies measuring the level of anti-HBs of vaccinated children were included. The seroprotective level with anti-HBs > 10mIU/ml was extracted. The meta-analysis was performed using statistical software for data sciences (STATA) version 14. Effectiveness estimates were reported as a proportion of anti-HBs level. The heterogeneity between studies was evaluated using the I2 test, and I2 > 50% and/or P < 0.10 was considered significant heterogeneity. Significant publication bias was considered when Egger's test P-value < 0.10. The new castle Ottawa scale was used to assess the quality of the studies. RESULTS: A pooled sample size of the included papers for meta-analysis was 7430. The pooled prevalence of seroprotected children was 56.95%, with a heterogeneity index (I2) of 99.4% (P < 0.001). 35% of the participants were hypo-responders (10-99mIU/ml) and 21.46% were good responders (> 100mIU/ml). Based on subgroup analysis using country of studies conducted, the highest prevalence of anti-HBs was 87.00% (95% CI: 84.56, 89.44), in South Africa, and the lowest was 51.99% (95% CI: 20.41-83.58), with a heterogeneity index I2 = 70.7% (p = 0.009) in Ethiopia. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Hepatitis B vaccine seroprotective level in the current pooled analysis have suboptimal, which failed to demonstrate consistent effectiveness for global hepatitis B virus elimination plan in 2030. Using consistent age group may have a significant value for the decision of the HB vaccine effectiveness. A significant heterogeneity was observed both in studies conducted in Ethiopia and Egypt. Therefore, the impact of HB vaccination on the prevention of hepatitis B virus infection should be assessed regularly in those countries. Future meta-analysis is needed to investigate all possible vaccines in a separate way of reviewing, which will lead to a strong conclusion and recommendations.

Financial burden of tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment for patients in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Despite the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB) given free of charge in many high-burden countries, the costs that patients face in the cascade of care remain a major concern. Here, we aimed to investigate the financial burden of TB diagnosis and treatment for people with TB in Ethiopia. METHOD: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Center for Clinical Trials from December 1 2022 to 31 June 2023 for articles reporting the cost of diagnosis and treatment for patients regardless of their age with all forms of TB in Ethiopia. Major study outcomes were catastrophic costs, direct (out-of-pocket) pre-diagnosis, medical cost, and post-diagnosis costs, indirect (income loss) costs, coping costs, and total costs. We have used a threshold of 20% to define catastrophic costs. We used random-effects meta-analyses to calculate summary estimates of costs. R-studio software was used for analysis. The study is registered with PROSPERO: CRD42023387687. RESULT: Twelve studies, with a total of 4792 patients with TB, were included in our analysis. At the 20% threshold of total expenses, 51% of patients (2301 participants from 5 studies, 95% CI: 36-65%, I2 = 97%) faced catastrophic costs due to bacteriologically confirmed drug-sensitive pulmonary TB. Private facility diagnosis, drug-resistance TB, TB-HIV co-infection, hospitalization, and occupation were found to be associated with catastrophic costs. Reduction in the total cost spent by the patients was associated with digital adherence interventions, community-based direct observed therapy, short-course MDR-TB treatment regimens, and active case-finding. Pre-diagnosis costs had a positive correlation with diagnosis delays and the number of facilities visited until diagnosis. Post-diagnosis costs had a positive correlation with rural residence and inpatient treatments. CONCLUSION: Irrespective of a national policy of free TB service, more than half of TB patients are suffering catastrophic costs due to drug-sensitive pulmonary TB in Ethiopia and most of the patients spend a lot of money during the pre-diagnosis period and intensive phase, but declined drastically over time. Active case-finding, digital adherence interventions, community-based treatment, and comprehensive health insurance coverage have the potential to minimize the financial burden of TB diagnosis and treatment.

Advances in HIV self-testing: Systematic review of current developments and the road ahead in high-burden countries of Africa.

Objectives: Although HIV self-testing technologies have created new opportunities for achieving national and global HIV testing goals, current developments have not been compiled to inform policy and practice, especially in high HIV burden countries of Africa. We aimed to compile and synthesize the evidence about HIV self-testing technologies, strategies, and uptake in the top-10 high HIV burden countries of Africa. Methods: We searched CINAHL, PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, Social Science Citation Index, and EMBASE to include eligible articles published in English between January 2012 and November 2022. Results: In total, 865 articles were retrieved and only 16 studies conducted in five African countries were eligible and included in this review. The two types of HIV self-testing modalities presently being used in Africa are: The first is Home Self-Test which is done entirely at home or in another private location by using oral fluid or blood specimen. The second modality is Mail-In Self-Test (self-sampling), where the user collects their own sample and sends this to a laboratory for testing. Perceived opportunities for the uptake of HIV self-testing were autonomy and self-empowerment, privacy, suitability, creating a chance to test, and simplicity of use. The potential barriers to HIV self-testing included fear and worry of a positive test result, concern of the test results is not reliable, low literacy, and potential psychological and social harms. The oral-fluid self-testing is preferred by most users because it is easy to use, less invasive, and painless. The difficulty of instructions on how to use self-test kits, and the presence of different products of HIV self-testing kits, increase rates of user errors. Conclusion: Adopting HIV self-testing by overcoming the challenging potential barriers could enable early detection, care, treatment, and prevention of the disease to achieve the 95-95-95 goal by 2030. Further study is necessary to explore the actual practices related to HIV self-testing among different populations in Africa.

Diagnostic accuracy of barium enema versus full-thickness rectal biopsy in children with clinically suspected Hirschsprung's disease: A comparative cross-sectional study.

Background and Aims: Hirschsprung's disease (HSD) remains a common cause of pediatric intestinal obstruction. Barium contrast enema (BE) is the primary imaging modality for the evaluation of clinically suspected cases. Here, we aimed to assess the diagnostic accuracy of BE in children with clinically suspected HSD when compared to a gold standard full-thickness rectal biopsy (FTRB). Methods: We recruited and consecutively enrolled children with clinically suspected HSD at two tertiary teaching hospitals. Participants underwent BE imaging and two radiologists interpreted the findings independently. Participants further underwent FTRB by pediatric surgeons as the confirmatory test. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and receiver operating characteristics (ROC) with the area under the curve (AUC) were calculated on Stata version 14.2, taking FTRB as the standard. Results: We enrolled 55 cases, of which 49 completed the evaluation and were included in the final analysis. The median age was 9.4 months (interquartile range: 2-24], with a male-to-female ratio of 4.4:1. The sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of BE were 0.95 (95% confidence interval [CI] [0.81-0.99]), 0.73 (95% CI [0.39-0.94]), 0.92 (95% CI [0.82-0.97]), and 0.80 (95% CI [0.50-0.94]), respectively. On AUC, the diagnostic accuracy of BE compared to the confirmatory FTRB was 0.84 (95% CI [0.69-0.98]). The diagnostic accuracy was higher in neonates (ROC: 1.00) when compared to infants (ROC: 0.83) or those above 1 year of age (ROC: 0.798). HSD-suggestive BE findings were associated with absence of ganglion cells on FTRB (χ 2 = 23.301, p < 0.001). Inverted rectosigmoid ratio and transition zone were more sensitive in detecting HSD of 0.92 (95% CI [0.74-0.98]) and 0.81 (95% CI [0.63-0.92]), respectively. Conclusion: BE is sufficiently accurate in the diagnosis of children with HSD, suggesting BE would likely be used to inform surgical management in settings where confirmatory biopsy is lacking. However, clinical judgment is warranted in interpreting negative BE findings.

Effects of sedatives on radiologic enema reduction in children with ileocolic intussusception: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: In children with ileocolic intussusception, sedatives such as midazolam, ketamine and propofol may facilitate radiologic enema reduction, but studies on their separate and joint effects remain controversial. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to systematically analyze studies for the effects of sedatives on the radiologic reduction of ileocolic intussusception in children. METHODS: We searched PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, Scopus and Web of Science from database inception through March 2023 for articles that enrolled children with ileocolic intussusception who underwent non-operative pneumatic or hydrostatic enema reduction under ultrasound or fluoroscopic guidance with or without the use of sedatives. The primary and secondary outcomes were success rate in radiologic reduction of ileocolic intussusception and risk of perforation, respectively. Effect estimates from the individual studies were extracted and combined using the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman log-odds random-effects model. Heterogeneity between studies was checked using Cochran's Q test and the I2 statistic. RESULTS: A total of 17 studies with 2094 participants were included in the final review, of which 15 were included in the meta-analysis. Nine studies reported on the success rate of radiologic reduction performed under sedation in all participants, while six studies compared the success rate in two patient groups undergoing the procedure with or without sedation. The pooled success rate of non-operative reduction under sedation was 87 % (95 % CI: 80-95 %), P = 0.000 with considerable heterogeneity (I2 = 85 %). A higher success rate of 94 % (95 % CI: 88-99 %) and homogeneity (I2 = 12 %) were found in studies with pneumatic enema reduction. Among comparative studies, the odds of success of non-operative reduction were increased when the procedure was performed under sedation, with a pooled odds ratio of 2.41 (95 % CI: 1.27-4.57), P = 0.010 and moderate heterogeneity (I2 = 60 %). In a sensitivity analysis, homogeneity was found between analyzed studies when two outliers were excluded (I2 = 0.73 %). The risk of perforation was not significantly different (OR 1.52, 95 % CI: 0.09-23.34), P = 0.764 indicating small study effects. No publication, bias was detected on visual inspection of the funnel plots or the Begg's and Egger's bias tests. Most studies were categorized as having a low risk of bias using Joanna Briggs Institute checklists. CONCLUSIONS: In selected patient groups, sedation can increase the success rate of radiologic enema reduction in children with ileocolic intussusception without evidence of increased risk of perforation. Systematic review protocol registration: PROSPERO CRD42023404887.

Challenges for research uptake for health policymaking and practice in low- and middle-income countries: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: An estimated 85% of research resources are wasted worldwide, while there is growing demand for context-based evidence-informed health policymaking. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), research uptake for health policymaking and practice is even lower, while little is known about the barriers to the translation of health evidence to policy and local implementation. We aimed to compile the current evidence on barriers to uptake of research in health policy and practice in LMICs using scoping review. METHODS: The scoping review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses-extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) and the Arksey and O'Malley framework. Both published evidence and grey literature on research uptake were systematically searched from major databases (PubMed, Cochrane Library, CINAHL (EBSCO), Global Health (Ovid)) and direct Google Scholar. Literature exploring barriers to uptake of research evidence in health policy and practice in LMICs were included and their key findings were synthesized using thematic areas to address the review question. RESULTS: A total of 4291 publications were retrieved in the initial search, of which 142 were included meeting the eligibility criteria. Overall, research uptake for policymaking and practice in LMICs was very low. The challenges to research uptake were related to lack of understanding of the local contexts, low political priority, poor stakeholder engagement and partnership, resource and capacity constraints, low system response for accountability and lack of communication and dissemination platforms. CONCLUSION: Important barriers to research uptake, mainly limited contextual understanding and low participation of key stakeholders and ownership, have been identified. Understanding the local research and policy context and participatory evidence production and dissemination may promote research uptake for policy and practice. Institutions that bridge the chasm between knowledge formation, evidence synthesis and translation may play critical role in the translation process.

Safety and tolerability of repeated doses of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy: a systematic review and an aggregated data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Malaria infection during pregnancy is an important cause of maternal and infant mortality and morbidity with the greatest effect being concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa. In areas of moderate to high malaria transmission, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the administration of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp) using sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) to be given to all pregnant women at each scheduled antenatal care visit at monthly intervals. However, there is concern that increased resistance has compromised its effectiveness. This has led to a need for evaluation of alternatives to SP for IPTp with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP) emerging as a very promising candidate. Thus, this systematic review and aggregated data meta-analysis was conducted to establish the safety and tolerability of repeated doses with DP in IPTp. METHODS: A systematic review and aggregated data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was performed by searching electronic databases of PubMed, Science Direct, ClinicalTrials.gov and Google Scholar. RCTs comparing IPTp DP versus recommended standard treatment for IPTp with these outcome measures were analyzed; change in QTc interval, serious adverse events (SAE), grade 3 or 4 adverse events possibly related to study drug and vomiting within 30 min after study drug administration. The search was performed up to 24th June 2023. Data was extracted from eligible studies and an aggregated data meta-analysis was carried out with data pooled as risk ratio (RR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI), using RevMan software (5.4). This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42022310041. RESULTS: Six RCTs involving 7969 participants were included in this systematic review and aggregated data meta-analysis. The pooled analysis showed that DP was associated with a change from baseline of the QTc interval although this change was not associated with cardiotoxicity. There was no statistically significant difference in the risk of occurrence of SAEs among participants in both treatment groups (RR = 0.80, 95% CI [0.52-1.24], P = 0.32). However, significant difference was observed in grade 3 or 4 AEs possibly related to study drug where analysis showed that subjects on IPT DP were statistically significantly more likely to experience an AE possibly related to study drug than subjects on IPT SP (RR = 6.65, 95% CI [1.18-37.54], P = 0.03) and in vomiting within 30 min after study drug administration where analysis showed that the risk of vomiting is statistically significantly higher in subjects receiving IPT DP than in subjects receiving IPT SP (RR = 1.77, 95% CI [1.02-3.07], P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: DP was associated with a higher risk of grade 3 or 4 AEs possibly related to study drug and a higher risk of vomiting within 30 min after study drug administration. However, these were experienced in a very small percentage of women and did not affect adherence to study drugs. DP was also better tolerated in these studies as compared to most alternatives that have been proposed to replace SP which have proved to be too poorly tolerated in IPTp use.

Madura foot and a continued diagnostic enigma: Dot-in-circle sign on magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound.

Madura foot is a chronic granulomatous disease of the skin and underlying tissues caused by fungi or bacteria. Early diagnosis is important to avoid disfiguring limb deformities. Low clinical suspicion, limited availability of diagnostic tools, and infection with fastidious organisms may lead to misdiagnosis and delayed treatment. Imaging tests can help to make a timely diagnosis in a non-invasive manner. Here we report two patients with a non-classical clinical presentation and a more favorable differential diagnoses who were correctly diagnosed as cases of Madura foot based on the ''dot-in-circle sign'', a specific finding on magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound.

Burden of neglected tropical diseases and access to medicine and diagnostics in Ethiopia: a scoping review.

BACKGROUND: More than 1.7 billion people are affected by neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) worldwide. Forty percent of the NTD-affected people live in Africa with the poorest, most vulnerable, and hard to reach geographical areas. The NTDs cause significant social and economic burden and deepen marginalization and stigmatization. The World Health Organization's current roadmap for NTD aims to prevent, control, eliminate, or eradicate 20 tropical diseases. Ethiopia experiences a high burden of these diseases, but current access to diagnostics, medicine, and/or care has been little explored to inform the country's NTD strategic plan. The overall purpose of the scoping review was to map and characterize the burden of NTDs and challenges in access to diagnostics, medicine, and/or care in Ethiopia. METHODS: A systematic search of evidence was conducted in PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar from January 2000 until May 2022, without restrictions of language or study design. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Review was followed for screening of studies. Key findings were extracted and narrated qualitatively. RESULTS: The search resulted in 4532 articles, of which 105 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the scoping review under three themes: burden of NTDs, access to diagnostics, medicine and/or care, and key barriers. Although gains have been made in the prevention and control of NTDs in Ethiopia, the burden remains high, and progress in access to diagnostics, medicine/drugs, and/or care is very slow. Poverty, poor quality of life, and underfunding of NTD programs decelerate the process of NTD elimination program in the country. CONCLUSIONS: The scoping review identified a considerable number of studies on the burden of NTDs in Ethiopia and strategies for diagnosis, treatment, and/or care; however, there is a paucity of evidence on the suitability and potential benefits of novel diagnostic technologies and medicines in the country. A regular review and analysis of such country-level evidence is important to inform the country NTDs roadmap and local implementation strategies.

Mobile Health-Supported Active Syndrome Surveillance for COVID-19 Early Case Finding in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Comparative Study.

BACKGROUND: Since most people in low-income countries do not have access to reliable laboratory services, early diagnosis of life-threatening diseases like COVID-19 remains challenging. Facilitating real-time assessment of the health status in a given population, mobile health (mHealth)-supported syndrome surveillance might help identify disease conditions earlier and save lives cost-effectively. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the potential use of mHealth-supported active syndrome surveillance for COVID-19 early case finding in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted among adults randomly selected from the Ethio telecom list of mobile phone numbers. Participants underwent a comprehensive phone interview for COVID-19 syndromic assessments, and their symptoms were scored and interpreted based on national guidelines. Participants who exhibited COVID-19 syndromes were advised to have COVID-19 diagnostic testing at nearby health care facilities and seek treatment accordingly. Participants were asked about their test results, and these were cross-checked against the actual facility-based data. Estimates of COVID-19 detection by mHealth-supported syndromic assessments and facility-based tests were compared using Cohen Kappa (κ), the receiver operating characteristic curve, sensitivity, and specificity analysis. RESULTS: A total of 2741 adults (n=1476, 53.8% men and n=1265, 46.2% women) were interviewed through the mHealth platform during the period from December 2021 to February 2022. Among them, 1371 (50%) had COVID-19 symptoms at least once and underwent facility-based COVID-19 diagnostic testing as self-reported, with 884 (64.5%) confirmed cases recorded in facility-based registries. The syndrome assessment model had an optimal likelihood cut-off point sensitivity of 46% (95% CI 38.4-54.6) and specificity of 98% (95% CI 96.7-98.9). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.87 (95% CI 0.83-0.91). The level of agreement between the mHealth-supported syndrome assessment and the COVID-19 test results was moderate (κ=0.54, 95% CI 0.46-0.60). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, the level of agreement between the mHealth-supported syndromic assessment and the actual laboratory-confirmed results for COVID-19 was found to be reasonable, at 89%. The mHealth-supported syndromic assessment of COVID-19 represents a potential alternative method to the standard laboratory-based confirmatory diagnosis, enabling the early detection of COVID-19 cases in hard-to-reach communities, and informing patients about self-care and disease management in a cost-effective manner. These findings can guide future research efforts in developing and integrating digital health into continuous active surveillance of emerging infectious diseases.

Utility of chest imaging in the diagnosis and management of patients with visceral leishmaniasis: A systematic review.

Objectives: Visceral leishmaniasis remains a deadly parasitic disease with diagnostic complexities. Currently, point-of-care chest imaging is gaining momentum in the diagnosis of infectious diseases. Respiratory symptoms are common in visceral leishmaniasis. Here we aimed to systematically synthesize the evidence on the utility of chest imaging on the diagnosis and management of patients with visceral leishmaniasis. Methods: We searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases for studies reporting chest imaging findings in patients with visceral leishmaniasis, published in English from database inception to November 2022. We used the Joanna Briggs Institute checklists to evaluate the risk of bias. The protocol of this systematic review was registered with the Open Science Framework: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/XP24W. Results: Of 1792 studies initially retrieved, 17 studies with 59 participants were included. Of the 59 patients, 51% (30) had respiratory symptoms and 20% (12) were human immunodeficiency virus co-infected. Chest X-ray, high-resolution computed tomography, and chest ultrasound findings were available for 95% (56), 93% (55), and 2% (1) of the patients, respectively. The most common findings were pleural effusion (20%; 12), reticular opacities (14%; 8), ground-glass opacities (12%; 7), and mediastinal lymphadenopathies (10%; 6). High-resolution computed tomography was more sensitive than chest X-ray and detected lesions that were lost on chest X-ray, 62% (37) versus 29% (17). In almost all cases, regression of the lesions was observed with treatment. Microscopy of pleural or lung biopsy detected amastigotes. Polymerase chain reaction yield was better in pleural and bronchoalveolar lavage fluids. A parasitological diagnosis from pleural and pericardial fluid was possible in AIDS patients. Overall, the risk of bias was low. Conclusions: Visceral leishmaniasis patients frequently had abnormal findings on high-resolution computed tomography. Chest ultrasound is a useful alternative in resource-limited settings to aid in diagnosis and subsequent treatment follow-up, especially when routine tests yield negative results despite clinical suspicion.

Congenital extrahepatic Portosystemic shunt with hypoplasia of the intrahepatic inferior vena cava: A rare case report.

Congenital portosystemic shunt (CPS) is a rare vascular anomaly resulting in diversion of splanchnic or portal blood into the systemic circulation. Other vascular malformations associated with this entity are uncommon. A 4-year-old female child with a diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis had an incidental finding of extrahepatic CPS on a Doppler abdominal ultrasound. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography showed a dilated portal vein having H-type side-to-side communication with a hypoplastic intrahepatic portion of the inferior vena cava and a prominent dilated azygos vein. There was retroaortic left renal vein drained into the IVC which was visualized in its entirety. Echocardiography findings were normal and the patient was discharged after symptomatic treatment that achieved improvement. With the expansion of abdominal imaging, incidental cases of CPS are increasingly being diagnosed in children. Although vascular malformations associated with CPS are rare, early diagnosis of cases helps avoid complications during shunt closure.

Chest X-ray predicts cases of pulmonary tuberculosis among women of reproductive age with acute respiratory symptoms: A multi-center cross-sectional study.

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) prevalence is increasing among women of reproductive age (WRA) in sub-Saharan Africa, yet undiagnosed and untreated cases remain rather high with serious health and socio-economic consequences. We aimed to assess the prevalence and predictors of TB in WRA seeking health care for acute respiratory symptoms. Methods: We consecutively enrolled outpatient WRA with acute respiratory symptoms seeking care at four healthcare facilities in Ethiopia between July 2019 and December 2020. Data on sociodemographic characteristics and clinical information were collected using a structured questionnaire administered by trained nurses. Posteroanterior chest X-ray was performed in non-pregnant WRA and interpreted independently by two radiologists. Sputum samples were collected from all patients and tested for pulmonary TB using Xpert MTB/RIF and/or smear microscopy. Predictors of bacteriologically confirmed TB cases were determined using binary logistic regression, with clinically relevant variables included in the final Firth's multivariate-penalized logistic regression model. Results: We enrolled 577 participants, of whom 95 (16%) were pregnant, 67 (12%) were living with HIV, 512 (89%) had cough of less than 2 weeks, and 56 (12%) had chest-x-ray findings suggestive of TB. The Overall prevalence of TB was 3% (95% CI: 1.8%-4.7%) with no significant difference observed between patient groups categorized by duration of cough or HIV serostatus (P-value = 0.9999). In multivariable analysis, TB-suggestive CXR abnormality (AOR 18.83 [95% CI, 6.20-57.18]) and history of weight loss (AOR 3.91 [95% CI, 1.25-12.29]) were associated with bacteriologically-confirmed TB cases. Conclusions: We found a high TB prevalence among low-risk women of reproductive age with acute respiratory symptoms. Routine CXR may improve early case detection and thereby TB treatment outcomes.

Efficacy and safety of different regimens in the treatment of patients with latent tuberculosis infection: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is effective in preventing progression to TB disease. This study aimed to synthesize available evidence on the efficacy, adherence, and safety of LTBI treatment in order to assist policymakers to design appropriate national treatment policies and treatment protocols. METHOD: The PRISMA-NMA was used to review and report this research. Randomized controlled trials which compared the efficacy and safety of LTBI treatments were included. A systematic literature search was done to identify relevant articles from online databases PubMed/ MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Center for Clinical Trial database (CENTRAL). The network meta-analysis was done using R- studio Version 1.4.1103. RESULT: In this review, 42 studies were included, which enrolled 46,022 people who had recent contact with patients with active tuberculosis, evidence radiological of previous tuberculosis, tuberculin test equal or greater than 5 mm, radiographs that indicated inactive fibrotic or calcified parenchymal and/or lymph node lesions, had conversion to positive results on a tuberculin skin test, participants living with HIV, chronic Silicosis, immigrants, prisoners, old people, and pregnant women who were at risk for latent TB were included. The incidence of TB among people living with HIV who have taken 3RH as TPT was lower, followed by 48%,followed by 6H (41%). However, 3HP has also the potential to reduce the incidence of TB by 36% among HIV negative patients who had TB contact history. Patients' adherence to TPT was higher among patients who have taken 4R (RR 1.38 95% CI 1.0,1.89) followed by 3RH (34%). The proportion of subjects who permanently discontinued a study drug because of an adverse event were three times higher in the 3RH treatment group. Furthermore, the risk of grade 3 and 4 liver toxicity was significantly higher in 9H followed by 1HP, and 6H. CONCLUSION: From this review, it can be concluded 3RH and 6H has a significant impact on the reduction of TB incidence among PLWH and 3HP among HIV negative people who had TB contact history. However, combinations of rifampicin either with isoniazid were significantly associated with adverse events which resulted in permanent discontinuation among adult patients. Furthermore, grade 3 and 4 liver toxicity was more common in patents who have taken 9H, 1HP, and 6H. This may support the current recommended TPT regimen of 3HP, 3RH, and 6H.

Safety of equine tetanus antitoxin for prophylactic use in Ethiopia: a retrospective multi-center study.

BACKGROUND: Tetanus remains a severe life-threatening infectious disease and neurological disorder in many parts of the world, where immunization programs are suboptimal. Any human injury or trauma has the possibility of getting infected with Clostridium tetani which is the sole causative bacterium of tetanus. Evidence is available that TAT may cause anaphylaxis and late serum sickness, while there has been no study conducted in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Ministry of Health standard treatment guideline recommends tetanus prophylaxis for all tetanus-prone wounds. This study aimed to evaluate the safety of TAT administration in adults exposed to tetanus-prone wounds in Ethiopia. METHODS: The target product of this study was the equine tetanus antitoxin developed and manufactured by the ViNS Bioproducts Limited, India (Code: 130202084, A.W.No: 15/AAW/PI/02.00, DT: 25.04.2016). The product is delivered with the dose of 1000/1500 IU intramuscularly or subcutaneously to individuals at risk of tetanus infection for prophylactic purposes. The study was carried out in 11 healthcare facilities in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, that had a relatively high clients load for tetanus-prone wounds. Medical records of patients with tetanus-prone wounds who received the equine TAT were reviewed retrospectively for any adverse events following immunization according to the World Health Organization (WHO) definition for adverse events following immunization (AEFI). RESULTS: There were more than 20,000 patients treated for trauma in the facilities from 2015 to 2019. Upon revision of available registration books, we identified 6000 charts to be eligible for the study, of which 1213 charts that had complete and reliable data on the AEFI profile of the TAT were included in the final analysis. The median age of the study participants was 26 years (IQR = 11 years, age range: 18-91 years) and 78% (949) were male. The tetanus-prone wounds resulted mainly from stab (44%, 535) and blunt force (30%, 362), and the most common sites of wounds were hand (22%, 270) and head (21%, 253). The most and least frequently occurring types of wounds were open wounds (77%, 930) and organ system injury (0.003%, 4), respectively. The mean time of presenting at health facilities from the onset of trauma was 2.96 h. Of the total 1231 participants, one male participant who presented within 3 h after experiencing a wound on his nose at the workplace had a severe local reaction immediately after injection of the TAT. No AEFI was recorded for the other participants. CONCLUSIONS: The adverse event following immunization of the equine tetanus antitoxin produced by the ViNS Bioproducts Limited was very rare. A regular review of the product's safety performance and systematic collection and analysis of adverse event reports are important to ensure the safety of the product.

Mapping digital health ecosystems in Africa in the context of endemic infectious and non-communicable diseases.

Investments in digital health technologies such as artificial intelligence, wearable devices, and telemedicine may support Africa achieve United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal for Health by 2030. We aimed to characterize and map digital health ecosystems of all 54 countries in Africa in the context of endemic infectious and non-communicable diseases (ID and NCD). We performed a cross-national ecological analysis of digital health ecosystems using 20-year data from the World Bank, UN Economic Commission for Africa, World Health Organization, and Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were used to characterize ecological correlations between exposure (technology characteristics) and outcome (IDs and NCDs incidence/mortality) variables. Weighted linear combination model was used as the decision rule, combining disease burden, technology access, and economy, to explain, rank, and map digital health ecosystems of a given country. The perspective of our analysis was to support government decision-making. The 20-year trend showed that technology characteristics have been steadily growing in Africa, including internet access, mobile cellular and fixed broadband subscriptions, high-technology manufacturing, GDP per capita, and adult literacy, while many countries have been overwhelmed by a double burden of IDs and NCDs. Inverse correlations exist between technology characteristics and ID burdens, such as fixed broadband subscription and incidence of tuberculosis and malaria, or GDP per capita and incidence of tuberculosis and malaria. Based on our models, countries that should prioritize digital health investments were South Africa, Nigeria, and Tanzania for HIV; Nigeria, South Africa, and Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC) for tuberculosis; DROC, Nigeria, and Uganda for malaria; and Egypt, Nigeria, and Ethiopia for endemic NCDs including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases, and malignancies. Countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Mozambique were also highly affected by endemic IDs. By mapping digital health ecosystems in Africa, this study provides strategic guidance about where governments should prioritize digital health technology investments that require preliminary analysis of country-specific contexts to bring about sustainable health and economic returns. Building digital infrastructure should be a key part of economic development programs in countries with high disease burdens to ensure more equitable health outcomes. Though infrastructure developments alongside digital health technologies are the responsibility of governments, global health initiatives can cultivate digital health interventions substantially by bridging knowledge and investment gaps, both through technology transfer for local production and negotiation of prices for large-scale deployment of the most impactful digital health technologies.

Digital health in the era of COVID-19: Reshaping the next generation of healthcare.

COVID-19 is one of the most deadly diseases to have stricken us in recent decades. In the fight against this disease, governments and stakeholders require all the assistance they can get from various systems, including digital health interventions. Digital health technologies are supporting the tracking of the COVID-19 outbreak, diagnosing patients, expediting the process of finding potential medicines and vaccines, and disinfecting the environment, The establishment of electronic medical and health records, computerized clinical decision support systems, telemedicine, and mobile health have shown the potential to strengthen the healthcare system. Recently, these technologies have aided the health sector in a variety of ways, including prevention, early diagnosis, treatment adherence, medication safety, care coordination, documentation, data management, outbreak tracking, and pandemic surveillance. On the other hand, implementation of such technologies has questions of cost, compatibility with existing systems, disruption in patient-provider interactions, and sustainability, calling for more evidence on clinical utility and economic evaluations to help shape the next generation of healthcare. This paper argues how digital health interventions assist in the fight against COVID-19 and their opportunities, implications, and limitations.

Prevalence of and risk factors for Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection in entrants and residents of an Ethiopian prison.

BACKGROUND: Prisoners generally have a higher prevalence of HIV infection compared to the general population from which they come. Whether this higher prevalence reflects a higher HIV prevalence in those entering prisons or intramural transmission of HIV within prisons or both is unclear. Any of these possibilities would increase the prevalence found in resident prisoners above that in the general population. Moreover, comparisons of HIV prevalence in entrants and residents and in men and women in African prisons are not well documented. The purpose of this study was to estimate and compare the prevalence and risk factors for HIV infection amongst both male as well as female and entrant and resident prisoners in a large Ethiopian Federal Prison. METHODS: We studied consenting prisoners cross-sectionally from August 2014 through November 2016. Prison entrants were screened continuously for HIV infection and its associated risk factors and residents were screened in two waves one year apart. HIV was diagnosed at the prison hospital laboratory based on the Ethiopian national HIV rapid antibody testing protocol. An external, internationally-accredited reference laboratory confirmed results. Agreement of results between the laboratories were assessed. RESULTS: A total of 10,778 participants were screened for HIV. Most participants were young (median age of 26 years, IQR: 21-33), male (84%), single (61%), literate (89%), and urban residents (91%) without prior incarceration (96%). Prevalence of HIV was 3.4% overall. Rates of HIV (p = 0.80) were similar in residents and entrants in wave 1 and in entrants in both waves, but were 1.9-fold higher (5.4% vs 2.8%) in residents than entrants in wave 2 (both p<0.001). At entrance to the prison women were more likely to be HIV+ than men (5.5% in women vs 2.5% in men, p< 0.001). In contrast resident women were less likely to be HIV+, but this difference was not statistically significant (3.2% in women vs 4.3% in men, p = 0.125). Other risk factors associated with HIV infection were increasing age (p<0.001), female gender (p<0.001), marital status (never vs other categories, p = 0.016), smaller number of rooms in their houses pre-imprisonment (p = 0.031), TB diagnosis ever (p<0.001), number of lifetime sex partners (especially having 2-10, p<0.001), and genital ulcer (p = 0.037). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of HIV in the residents at this large, central Ethiopian prison was higher than that estimated for the general population and lower than in many other studies from other smaller Ethiopian prisons. A higher prevalence in residents than in entrants were found only in our second wave of screening after one year of continuous screening and treatment, possibly representing increased willingness of residents at increased risk of HIV to participate in the second wave. Thus, this findings did not clearly support intramural transmission of HIV or the effectiveness of screening to reduce prevalence. Finally, the higher HIV prevalence in women than men requires that they be similarly screened and treated for HIV infection.